<p>The environmental impact, security of supplies and an ever decreasing reserve of global fossil fuels offers undeniable justification to promoting research into renewable biofuel sources. In the United States alone in 2008, 37.1 quadrillion BTU of petroleum was utilised, of which 71% was used as fuel in the transportation industry (Connor, Atsumi. 2010). Due to its comparatively small population, Australia, despite its total global contribution being dwarfed compared to other countries, ranks extremely highly among global CO2 emissions per capita (see: figure 1). </p>
<p> <i> Figure 1: 2014 Global CO2 emissions per capita between countries 1990 - 2013 (Olivier J., Maenhout G. J., et al 2014). </i> </p>
+
−
<br>
+
−
<p>Theoretically inexhaustible while also non-polluting, hydrogen gas forms an obvious alternative fuel candidate, with feasible production being the major barrier to its wide-scale applications. While current hydrogen production (predominantly sourced from natural gas) has most traditionally been utilised in oil refining and ammonia production, this project seeks to expand upon these by widely applying it throughout the energy sector; including electricity production, fuel cell heating and even ignition within combustion engines. Multiple hydrogen production methods are commercially available today; the major examples being thermochemical methods in which hydrogen is derived from hydrocarbons, and electrolysis of water during which water is electrically split into its constituent elements; hydrogen and oxygen. In addition to these, alternate techniques have been the topic of investigation; including deriving hydrogen thermochemically from hydrocarbon feedstocks, advanced electrochemical routes to hydrogen production (Ogden 1999), and as in the case of this project, biological production.</p>
+
−
<div class="floatImageleft">
+
<p align="justify">As part of our outreach activities, the 2015 Macquarie University iGEM team explored the prospects of implementing the photosynthetic components that are being built in the lab, as part of a business venture. The aim was to design a bioreactor for the production of hydrogen gas, using purified photosynthetic molecules which are being developed in <i>E. coli</i>, and coupling these with a hydrogenase enzymes. The gas produced would then be purified, compressed, and used as a clean, sustainable fuel source.</p>
<p align="justify">To construct a viable business plan, we had to consider what market we would compete in, and what separates us from current competitors, how we would function in this market, the economical risks involved, and prototype design. A structured business implementation plan was formed using extensive research, and discussion with key opinion leaders.</p>
<p>Oxygenic photosynthesis is the source of the energy used in producing most food and fuel sources on Earth, and photosystem II (PSII) is an essential and rate-limiting component of this process. By synthetically engineering this component inside E. coli, production of hydrogen gas for use as a renewable biofuel can be achieved. Utilisation of Hydrogen gas as a biofuel offers multiple advantages over other conventional fuel sources; particularly in that it is carbon neutral, non-toxic and automatically separates itself from a microbial culture (Savage, Way, Silver 2008).</p>
−
<br>
−
<p>Recently, the potential of algae has been revealed as an competitive, alternate biological ‘factory’ for the production of biofuels due to their rapid growth, easy genetic manipulation and safe and cost effective nature as hosts for expressing recombinant proteins. While this is certainly promising, optimization and processing technologies, and preventing abiotic stress exposure is still commercially difficult (Gimpel, Nour-Eldin et al. 2015). <i>E. coli</i> was selected for its competitive advantage over algae as a biological factory as it is ideal in a closed culture as in our generator system while also being easy to genetically manipulate and accompanied by a publicly accessible genome sequence.</p>
−
<br>
−
<p> Some traditional photo-bioreactor designs alternative to the hydrogen hero (see: prototype) are illustrated within figure 3.</p>
<p>With recent rises in the cost of petroleum alongside uncertainty regarding its limited quantity of reserves, biofuel research is gaining increasing relevance internationally. Unfortunately, the production costs associated with biofuels almost invariably exceeds those of fossil fuels, and as such, assistive factors such as tax exemptions or blending quotas are vital when considering financial viability. In contrast to this, fuel taxation forms a major part of government revenue, as it is significantly easier to implement and maintain compared to the likes of income tax. In fact, in many developing countries fuel taxation makes up ¼ of its total tax revenue (Peters, Thielmann. 2008). Other potential limiting factors such as land requirements for the fuels production, average yield (%), system boundaries (by-products) and transportation systems should also be carefully considered.</p>
−
<br>
−
<p>The cost of compression of hydrogen gas compared to natural gas is high, as approximately 3 times the compression power per unit of energy transmitted is needed to compress hydrogen, and the cost of compressors is around 20- 30% higher (Ogden 1999). Furthermore, the capital cost of hydrogen transmission pipelines is ~40% higher than natural gas (Ogden. 1999). This offers financial justification for the use of on-site generators and careful compression management, which further allows circumnavigation of many costly Australian fuel taxation laws.</p>
−
<br>
−
<p>However, a major factor that can promote preferential government treatment of biofuels is the abatement of green-house gases (GHG). This of course, requires that the production of the biofuel be economically viable for the internalisation of GHG emission costs. Böhringer C., Löschel A. (2002) calculated that the European Emissions Trading Scheme would abate $41 per tonne of GHG reduced. Furthermore, biogas can reduce the GHG emissions compared to petroleum and diesel by between 80% (when sourced from ley crops) to 180% (from liquid manure) (Mattiasson, Börjesson. 2008; Ryan et al. 2006). This indicates that substantial financial return could be attainable from this aspect of production when applied on a large scale, but cannot supplement stable financial foundations. </p>
<p><i> Figure 2: Nominal state motor fuel taxation (cents/gallon) 1960-1996 (Goel, Nelson. 1999)</i></p>
−
<br>
−
<h2>Legal</h2>
−
<p>DISCLAIMER: This document is not to be construed as general legal advice, rather it is a discourse on intellectual property within the context of the iGEM creative commons licence and a hypothetical commercial enterprize.</p>
−
<br>
−
<p><b>The iGEM Creative commons licence:</b></p>
−
<br>
−
<p>As stipulated in the registry licence terms (link*) all submitted biobricks fall under the “Sharealike” creative commons licence. Consistant with the iGEM ethos this allows complete freedom to share, modify and redistribute content so long as the original authors are acknowledged (cc*). </P>
−
<p>Pics Here!</p>
−
<br>
−
<p> <b>Intellectual property and Commercial Synthetic Biology </b></p>
−
<p>Due to the significant risk and capital pertaining to investment in biotechnology industry, patents provide the necessary incentive that drives the multibillion dollar R&D sector. The landmark <b>Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics</b> has posed a significant challenge for the future of this sector, the US supreme court rulling that isolated genes are natural products and therefore not patentable*USCHAMBER. In a somewhat contradictory ruling <b>D'Arcy v. Myriad Genetics Inc & Anor</b> an Australian supreme court (NSW) upheld the patent of the BRCA1 gene, this case is currently pending appeal in the High Court of Australia (The highest court of appeal in the country).</p>
<p align="justify">Several advantages for our project have been identified, in relation to current players in the market. Hydrogen gas is a carbon-neutral, non-polluting, and inexhaustible, making it a favourable candidate for an alternative source of fuel. While currently, several methods of hydrogen production exist, such as derivation from hydrocarbons using thermochemical methods, water splitting using electrolysis, and the use of algal ‘factories’, producing hydrogen through photosynthesis, our advantages lie in cost effectiveness, compared to electrolysis and thermochemical methods, as well as the simplicity of culturing, and genetically modifying <i>E. coli</i> to make the proteins on a large scale, and more durable when exposed to abiotic stressors. Furthermore the genes developed in the lab, and their products can be patented.</p>
−
<p>As the long term viability of patenting genetic material remains uncertain, the iGEM creative commons licence forces a future generation of synthetic biologists to come up with more creative ways to develop novel intellectual property.</p>
<p align="justify">Renewable energy systems have drawn a large amount of consumer interest, and investments, to drive innovation of products, and market growth in this area. The successful development of hydrogen producing <i>E. coli</i> within an enclosed system would be beneficial in terms of modular energy production, and gas storage. Elements such as business opportunities, market growth, strengths, and risks have been evaluated, based on research to develop a sound strategic plan, as well as consider future prospects for this project.</p>
−
To approach this problem the Macquarie iGEM team has consulted with two independent patent lawyers who generously gave their time and insight into this topic. <p/>?<br>
+
−
<p>First and foremost clear articulation of concept is extremely important in designing effective patent law. For this to be clear two fundamental questions must be answered:
<b>Is this novel?</b> (Has it been done before, is this a genuinely new idea)
+
<p align="justify">Team Macquarie 2015 consulted several key opinion leaders from various related fields to gain professional industry perspectives, and critically evaluate our project. The information gained was used to cultivate our project design, and determine how it might be applied in a business setting.</p>
−
<br>
+
−
<b>Is this inventive?</b> (It actually needs to solve a problem and be useful)</p>
<p align="justify">Our business implementation plan involved designing a prototype which would enable viable and efficient hydrogen production, using chlorophyll molecules and photosystem II developed in <i>E. coli</i>, coupled with hydrogenases. The Hydrogen Hero has been designed to be a modular, self-sufficient bioreactor, and was heavily influenced by research, and feedback from several key opinion leaders.</p>
−
<p>Despite the uncertainty overhanging the pending Australian high court case, supreme courts are unified in the opinion that artificial genes and their products are patentable material.</p>
+
−
<p><a class="regularHyperlink" href="http://parts.igem.org/Registry_license_terms/" target="_blank">iGEM registry of terms</a></p>
<p><a class="regularHyperlink" href="http://www.uschamberfoundation.org/patents-and-biotechnology/" target="_blank">USCHAMBER - Association for Molecular Pathology vs Myriad Genetics</a></p>
<p align="justify">When embarking on a business venture, there are several risks involved, and these too had to be considered. Such risks typically fall into financial, legal, market, technical, and systematic categories. For the business plan to be successful, these risks need to be managed, and potentially eliminated entirely.</p>
−
<br>
+
−
<!-- Jono can you please put these references on the Attributions References page? Thanks, Tanya -->
+
−
<ul>
+
−
<li>Böhringer C., Löschel A. (2002) Assessing the costs of compliance: The Kyoto Protocol. European Environment, 12 (1), 1 - 16.</li>
+
−
<li> Christopher K., Dimitrios R. (2012) A review on exergy comparison of hydrogen production methods from renewable energy sources. Energy & Environmental Sciences, 5, 6640 - 6651. </li>
+
−
<li>Connor M. R., Atsumi S. (2010) Synthetic Biology Guides Biofuel Production. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 10, 1 - 9. </li>
+
−
<li>Goel R. K., Nelson M. A. (1999) The Political Economy of Motor-Fuel Taxation. The Energy Journal 20(1), 45. </li>
+
−
<li> Gimpel J. A., Nour-Eldin H. H., Scranton M. A., Li D., Mayfield S. P. (2015) Refactoring the Six-Gene Photosystem II Core in the Chloroplast of the Green Algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. American Chemical Society: Synthetic Biology, 10(1), 1021.</li>
+
−
<li> Kapdan I. K., Kargi F. (2006) Bio-hydrogen production from waste materials. Enzyme and Microbial technology, 38(5), 569 - 582. </li>
+
−
<li> Mattiasson B, Börjesson P. (2008) Biogas as a resource-efficient vehicle fuel. Trends in Biotechnology, 26(1), 7-13 </li>
+
−
<li> Ogden J M. (1999) Prospects for building a hydrogen energy infrastructure. Annual review of energy and the environment, 24, 232 - 240.</li>
+
−
<li> Olivier J., Maenhout G. J., Muntean M., Peters J. A. H. W. (2014) Trends in global CO2 emissions: 2014 Report. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, 1, 24.
+
−
</li>
+
−
<li>Peters J., Thielmann S. (2008) Promoting Biofuels: Implications for developing countries. Energy Policy, 36(4), pp. 1538- 1539.</li>
+
−
<li>Ryan L., Convery F., Ferreria S. (2006) Stimulating the use of biofuels in the European Union: implications for climate change policy. Energy Policy, 34, 3184 - 3194.</li>
+
−
<li>Savage D. F., Way J., Silver P. A. (2008) Defossiling fuel: How Synthetic Biology Can Transform Biofuel Production. American Chemical Society: Chemical Biology, 3(1), 13. </li>
<p align="justify">Ultimately, iGEM teams from Macquarie University have been developing photosynthetic <i>E. coli</i> over the past three years, and will continue to advance this project in the coming years. The hope is that this project will be successful, and eventually the molecules produced in <i>E. coli</i> could be a viable solution to the coming global energy crisis, and the need for clean, sustainable energy.</p>
As part of our outreach activities, the 2015 Macquarie University iGEM team explored the prospects of implementing the photosynthetic components that are being built in the lab, as part of a business venture. The aim was to design a bioreactor for the production of hydrogen gas, using purified photosynthetic molecules which are being developed in E. coli, and coupling these with a hydrogenase enzymes. The gas produced would then be purified, compressed, and used as a clean, sustainable fuel source.
To construct a viable business plan, we had to consider what market we would compete in, and what separates us from current competitors, how we would function in this market, the economical risks involved, and prototype design. A structured business implementation plan was formed using extensive research, and discussion with key opinion leaders.
Several advantages for our project have been identified, in relation to current players in the market. Hydrogen gas is a carbon-neutral, non-polluting, and inexhaustible, making it a favourable candidate for an alternative source of fuel. While currently, several methods of hydrogen production exist, such as derivation from hydrocarbons using thermochemical methods, water splitting using electrolysis, and the use of algal ‘factories’, producing hydrogen through photosynthesis, our advantages lie in cost effectiveness, compared to electrolysis and thermochemical methods, as well as the simplicity of culturing, and genetically modifying E. coli to make the proteins on a large scale, and more durable when exposed to abiotic stressors. Furthermore the genes developed in the lab, and their products can be patented.
Renewable energy systems have drawn a large amount of consumer interest, and investments, to drive innovation of products, and market growth in this area. The successful development of hydrogen producing E. coli within an enclosed system would be beneficial in terms of modular energy production, and gas storage. Elements such as business opportunities, market growth, strengths, and risks have been evaluated, based on research to develop a sound strategic plan, as well as consider future prospects for this project.
Team Macquarie 2015 consulted several key opinion leaders from various related fields to gain professional industry perspectives, and critically evaluate our project. The information gained was used to cultivate our project design, and determine how it might be applied in a business setting.
Our business implementation plan involved designing a prototype which would enable viable and efficient hydrogen production, using chlorophyll molecules and photosystem II developed in E. coli, coupled with hydrogenases. The Hydrogen Hero has been designed to be a modular, self-sufficient bioreactor, and was heavily influenced by research, and feedback from several key opinion leaders.
When embarking on a business venture, there are several risks involved, and these too had to be considered. Such risks typically fall into financial, legal, market, technical, and systematic categories. For the business plan to be successful, these risks need to be managed, and potentially eliminated entirely.
Ultimately, iGEM teams from Macquarie University have been developing photosynthetic E. coli over the past three years, and will continue to advance this project in the coming years. The hope is that this project will be successful, and eventually the molecules produced in E. coli could be a viable solution to the coming global energy crisis, and the need for clean, sustainable energy.
